Cyrus the Great is known to historians as the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, and he is an intriguing figure for historians and scholars of religion. The Achaemenid Empire was formed through the consolidation of Persian tribes and the conquest of the Median, Lydian, and Babylonian kingdoms (Hourly History, 2021, p. 3). The historian Herodotus described Cyrus’s attack on Babylon:
When Cyrus had brought all the mainland under his sway, he attacked the Assyrians. There are in Assyria many other great cities; but the most famous and the strongest was Babylon, where the royal dwelling had been set after the destruction of Ninus. (Herodotus, trans. 1920, 1.178)
Apart from building a large empire, Cyrus is also interesting because scholars are unsure whether he was a Zoroastrian or followed another religious tradition. Encyclopaedia Iranica notes:
Cyrus himself may have been a worshiper of Ahura Mazdā, but almost nothing is known about his personal beliefs. According to Xenophon (Cyropaedia 4.5.14), in religious matters Cyrus followed the instruction of the Magians at his court. Although many scholars do not believe that Cyrus was a Zoroastrian (e.g., Widengren, pp. 142-45), Mary Boyce (1988, p. 30) has argued strongly both that he was a Zoroastrian himself and that he thus followed in the footsteps of his Persian forebears back to the 7th century b.c.e., when they were still petty kings of Anshan. (Dandamayev, 2013, “Cyrus’ religious policies” section)
This post will not extensively examine the life of Cyrus the Great or the Achaemenid Empire. Instead, it will examine how he is portrayed in the book of Isaiah in the Bible and in the Cyrus Cylinder.
The Cyrus Cylinder is an inscription that describes his victory over the Babylonians and presents him as restoring religious practices and displaced communities (Arnold & Beyer, 2002, p. 147). However, this Cylinder has generated controversy because some have described it as the world’s first declaration of human rights. Michael Seymour (2013), a curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, argues that the document is better understood as a statement of benevolent kingship.
Within the Cyrus Cylinder, the text states:
From to the cities of Asher and Susa, Agade,Eshnunna, the cities of Zamban,Meternu, Der, as far as the region of the land of Gutium, the holy cities beyond the Tigris whose sanctuaries had been in ruins over a long period, the gods whose abode is in the midst of them, I returned to their places and housed them in lasting abodes. I gathered together all their inhabitants and restored them to their dwellings. The godsof sumer and akkad whom nabinodus had to the anger of the lord of the gods brogut into babylon, 1 at the bidding of Marduk, the greta lordmade to dwell in peace in their habriations, delightful abodes. (Arnold & Beyer, 2002, pp. 148–149)
Marduk is a Babylonian deity who is described as creating the cosmos after defeating the monster Tiamat in the text known as the Enuma Elish (Arnold & Beyer, 2002, p. 31). The Cylinder presents Cyrus as a benevolent king through its descriptions of him restoring religious practices and returning inhabitants to their dwellings. These statements portray him as showing tolerance toward the communities described in the text. However, they do not necessarily demonstrate that everyone throughout his empire had religious freedom.
The Cyrus Cylinder also describes Cyrus as receiving divine approval to rule. His actions are presented as fulfilling the wishes of the god Marduk. The text states:
The black-headed people whom Marduk put in Cyrus’spower, to them Cyrus tried to behave with justice and righteousness. Marduk the great lord, compassionate to all his people, looked with gladness on his good deeds and his upright intentions. (Arnold & Beyer, 2002, pp. 147–148)
In this source, Cyrus is presented as an agent of Marduk who receives favor to rule through Marduk’s authority. The description of Marduk approving Cyrus’s actions helps present his rule as legitimate and beneficial to the people under his authority.
While there are important differences, the image of Cyrus as a liberator is also found in the Hebrew Scriptures, particularly in the book of Isaiah. Many scholars associate chapters 40–55 with an anonymous prophetic writer from the sixth century BCE, distinct from the eighth century prophet Isaiah. This section has been labeled “Second Isaiah,” and its themes include the restoration of Zion and the redemption of Israel (Sweeney, 2005, p. 73). Isaiah 45:1–13 is particularly significant because Yahweh is presented as using a foreign ruler rather than a Davidic king to achieve his purpose (Sweeney, 2005, p. 76).
In Isaiah 45:1–13, there are several important themes for analysis. This passage starts with the declaration of what God says to his “anointed.” The Hebrew word for “anointed” used here is mashiyach, which refers to God’s anointed patriarchs, kings of Israel, and, in this context, Cyrus (Blue Letter Bible, n.d.-a). In other places in the Hebrew Bible, the priests of God were anointed for service to the Lord (New International Version Bible, 2011, Leviticus 4:3–5). This is the basis for the New Testament idea of the Messiah as the anointed one of God.
After declaring that Cyrus is God’s “anointed,” the passage declares that God has taken the right hand of Cyrus (New International Version Bible, 2011, Isaiah 45:1). There are many other places throughout the Hebrew Bible where God’s right hand symbolizes power. In Psalms, God protects and sustains his people and conquers his enemies through his right hand (New International Version Bible, 2011, Psalms 17:7; 18:35; 21:8). Exodus 15 recounts Moses’s song to the Lord, in which he describes God’s right hand as full of power and as destroying the enemies of the Israelites (New International Version Bible, 2011, Exodus 15:6).
Finally, Isaiah 45:13 concludes this section by declaring that Yahweh will use Cyrus to achieve his purpose. Cyrus will rebuild the city and set the exiles free, but he will not do it for a price or reward (New International Version Bible, 2011, Isaiah 45:13). The verse uses the Hebrew term tsedeq, associated with righteousness or justice, to describe Yahweh’s purpose in raising up Cyrus (Blue Letter Bible, n.d.-b).
This verse can be examined alongside what scholars have called the “Cyrus decree.” In the biblical account of this decree, Cyrus proclaims that the God of Israel has commissioned him to build a temple in Jerusalem and allows the people of Judah to return to their homeland (Arnold & Williamson, 2005, p. 485; New International Version Bible, 2011, 2 Chronicles 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–4). Ezra 6:3–5 also records a decree attributed to Cyrus that authorizes rebuilding the temple with funds from the royal treasury.
In contrast to the Cyrus Cylinder, which attributes Cyrus’s authority to Marduk, the biblical accounts connect his actions to Yahweh. However, the religious language attributed to Cyrus in the decree does not establish that he converted to the worship of Yahweh. Isaiah 45:4–5 specifically describes Yahweh as supporting Cyrus even though Cyrus does not acknowledge him. There is no clear evidence that Cyrus became a convert to Judaism (Radmacher et al., 1999, p. 568).
Some scholars suggest that Cyrus may have enlisted the help of local religious specialists to compose the decree. This could help explain the different religious language used to describe him in Jewish and Babylonian sources (Arnold & Williamson, 2005, p. 487). Regardless of who composed these texts, both portray Cyrus as acting with divine approval.
Both texts present Cyrus as a ruler whose actions fulfill a deity’s purposes. The difference is that the Cylinder attributes this authority to Marduk, while Isaiah attributes it to Yahweh. Isaiah also makes the point that Cyrus can fulfill Yahweh’s purpose without acknowledging him.
While different sources like Herodotus, Isaiah, and the Cyrus Cylinder portray different images of Cyrus, he remains an interesting figure to study. It can thus be beneficial for historians and anthropologists to examine the biases and narratives of these sources to examine common points in the portrayal of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus’s legacy is still seen in the present by those who study him.
References
Arnold, B. T., & Beyer, B. E. (2002). Readings from the ancient Near East: Primary sources for Old Testament study. Baker Academic.
Arnold, B. T., & Williamson, H. G. M. (2005). History of Israel 7: Persian period. In B. T. Arnold & H. G. M. Williamson (Eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical books (pp. 485–492). InterVarsity Press.
Blue Letter Bible. (n.d.-a). Strong’s H4899: Māšîaḥ. https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/h4899/kjv/wlc/0-1/
Blue Letter Bible. (n.d.-b). Strong’s H6664: Ṣeḏeq. https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/h6664/kjv/wlc/0-1/
Dandamayev, M. A. (2013, August 29). Cyrus iii. Cyrus II the Great. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cyrus-iii/
Herodotus. (1920). The histories (A. D. Godley, Trans.; Vol. 1). Harvard University Press. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/1d*.html
Hourly History. (2021). Persian empire: A history from beginning to end.
New International Version Bible. (2011). Bible Gateway. https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/New-International-Version-NIV-Bible/
Radmacher, E. D., Allen, R. B., & House, H. W. (Eds.). (1999). Nelson’s new illustrated Bible commentary. Thomas Nelson.
Seymour, M. (2013, June 24). The later legacy of Cyrus the Great. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/it/perspectives/cyrus-the-great
Sweeney, M. A. (2005). The prophetic literature. Abingdon Press.
Leave a Reply