Christianity and Jainism
Two religious traditions that are rarely compared are Christianity and Jainism. In this post, I will not speculate or argue that one tradition directly influenced the other. While there is no clear historical evidence that Jesus was directly influenced by Jain teachings, and Mahavira lived centuries before the emergence of Christianity, I would simply like to draw a comparative analysis between some aspects of these two religious traditions.
The Ethics of Nonviolence
Jainism is perhaps best known for its systematic practice of ahiṃsā, or nonviolence, and for the rigor and degree of asceticism that it promotes. Those seeking to become Jain monks were required to take a vow of ahiṃsā, although the principle also serves as a central religious value for the Jain laity. Ahiṃsā relates to not harming any living being (Babb, 1996, p. 56). Lawrence A. Babb (1996) notes, “It is more than a religious doctrine, however, for ahiṃsā is also a cultural value that is embedded in many aspects of Jain life” (p. 138). Likewise, the Jain scripture the Ācārāṅga Sūtra states:
“The Arhats and Bhagavats of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus: all breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away” (Jacobi, 1884, Book 1, Lecture 4, Lesson 1).
Here, it is important to note that an Arhat can refer to a Jina. Donaldson and Bajželj (2021) explain that Jinas are teachers who, through their own efforts, master the disciplinary practices necessary to attain liberation from the cycle of rebirths, known as saṃsāra (loc. 98). Likewise, Bhagavat (or Bhagavān) was an honorific title used in Jain texts to refer to revered or enlightened teachers (Great Russian Encyclopedia, n.d.).
The Jain teaching of nonviolence finds an interesting comparison in the teachings of Jesus. In the Gospel of Matthew, when discussing the principle of lex talionis, or the retaliation of force with force, Jesus states, “But I say to you, do not show opposition against an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other toward him also” (New American Standard Bible, 2020, Matthew 5:39). Later in the same chapter, Jesus states, “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew 5:43–44).
Daniel Harrington (1991), when commenting on these teachings, notes, “They not only prohibit violence but also demand that brutality and force be met with abounding goodness” (p. 92). In a similar fashion, Paul writes, “Never repay evil for evil to anyone. Respect what is right in the sight of all people” (Romans 12:17). J. R. Daniel Kirk (2020) notes, “Living out the Jesus story means not repaying evil for evil (Romans 12:17). It means doing good to all and being at peace so far as it is up to us (12:17–18)” (p. 154). There is a clear structural similarity between ahiṃsā and Christianity’s teachings on nonviolence—challenging followers to avoid repaying evil with more evil, and instead responding with love.
Asceticism: The Forest and the Desert
Both Jain monks and the Christian Desert Fathers were known for practicing extreme forms of asceticism and self-denial for spiritual purposes. Sinclair Stevenson (1915), in her study of Jainism, notes, “A monk must frequently fast, but the period for which he fasts may vary from one day to three months” (p. 34). John E. Cort (2001) notes, “For many Jains, the ideal of asceticism is encapsulated in the biography of Mahavira. His life is often described as ‘composed of asceticism.’ Medieval hagiographies of Mahavira detail the many fasts and austerities he practiced during his life as a mendicant” (Kindle loc. 2009). Brianne Donaldson and Ana Bajželj (2021) note, “[Mahavira] was an elder contemporary of the Buddha, and while we do not know if they ever actually met, a Buddhist canonical text, Sāmaññaphala-sutta, lists [Mahavira] as one of the śramaṇa leaders. This indicates that at least the Buddha knew of [Mahavira]” (loc. 110).
Phyllis Granoff (1998) translated many medieval Jain stories in her work titled The Forest of Thieves and the Magic Garden: An Anthology of Medieval Jain Stories. The forest was thus one of the metaphors for the life that we all live, and the way to leave the forest is to renounce possessions and become monks. Those who cannot do this need to live by Jain ethics (Granoff, 1998, p. 3). A Jain monk named Sukosala removed all of his jewelry, pulled out his hair, and removed his attachments to the world. He next received the vows of the monks and traveled to different places, living a life of self-denial with his father (Granoff, 1998, pp. 49–56).
The stories of self-denial are also manifest in the Christian monastic tradition, particularly among the Desert Fathers. Whereas Granoff noted that the forest was one metaphor, the desert was a special place of significance for Christian monks. The Desert Fathers and Mothers chose to live in the desert due to its sacred symbolism related to the Bible. This was a place that was significant due to its foundational role in the stories of the Bible. It was not a random location, but one given spiritual significance by these ascetics (Howard, 2025, p. 23).
The Christian Desert Fathers, similar to Jain monks, renounced worldly wealth because they did not want to become too attached to worldly possessions. The Sayings of the Desert Fathers tells a story about a monk named Hyperichius who stated, “To accept poverty freely is the monk’s treasure” (Ward, 2003, p. 56). The Desert Mother Amma Syncletica sold her wealth and decided to cut her hair while transitioning to the desert life when her parents passed away. She noted, “Whatever we do or gain in this world, let us consider it insignificant in comparison to the eternal wealth that is to come” (Orthodox Christian Meditations, 2023). Amma Syncletica’s radical decision to remove her hair beautifully mirrors the renunciation rituals of the Jain monk Sukosala.
Universal Hopes: Beyond Eternal Punishment
Another aspect in which Jainism and Christianity have an interesting similarity relates to the Jain belief in saṃsāra and the Christian belief in universal reconciliation, or universalism. I must mention that universalism is not held by all Christians, but it is a belief that various Christians have held throughout Christianity’s history. Similar to Buddhism and Hinduism, Jainism teaches that the self is captured in a repeated cycle of death and rebirth known as saṃsāra.
If one’s karma, or actions, was poor, one could be reborn as a hell-being (nāraka) and experience torment. These beings exist in a state of darkness, suffer from hunger, heat, and cold, and are tortured by demon-like beings. Their terms of punishment can entail long periods, but they are not seen as eternal (Babb, 1996, p. 46).
The Forest of Thieves and the Magic Garden tells a story about a man named Bhadda. He went out into the forest and found a rabbit he wanted to kill. The rabbit ran away and hid beside a monk. When Bhadda tried to throw his club, it bounced back and hit him in the face. Reflecting on this deed after he regains consciousness, he says:
“The evil deed that I committed has borne fruit right here in this very birth, or perhaps some meritorious deed that I once did has now come to fruition, for somehow this club bounced back and hit me on the forehead; otherwise it may have struck this sage who is deep in meditation. If it had, I would not have found a place in the seventh hell, after committing such an evil act” (Granoff, 1998, p. 85).
Ana Bajželj and Brianne Donaldson note, “The term ‘Jain’ means one who follows a Jina (‘Conqueror’ or ‘Victor’). Jinas are teachers who, by their own efforts, master the disciplinary practices needed to attain liberation from the cycle of rebirths, known as saṃsāra” (Donaldson & Bajželj, 2021, loc. 98). Jainism holds that some could experience postmortem torment, but it firmly rejects the idea of an eternal place of suffering.
Christian universalism is similar in some ways to saṃsāra because it involves a period of punishment followed by a release. Gregory of Nyssa, an early Church Father who helped define the Nicene Creed in 381, stated:
“But as for those whose weaknesses have become inveterate . . . it is absolutely necessary that they should come to be in something proper to their case—just as the furnace is the proper thing for gold alloyed with dross—in order that, the vice which has been mixed up in them being melted away after long succeeding ages, their nature may be restored pure again to God” (as cited in Artman, 2020, pp. 91–92).
For Gregory of Nyssa, God was seen as a purifier, and postmortem punishment would not be an eternal affair. The theologian William Barclay, while examining the Church Father Origen, wrote, “Origen believed that after death there were many who would need prolonged instruction, the sternest discipline, even the severest punishment before they were fit for the presence of God” (as cited in Gregg, 2013, p. 238).
Some of Origen’s followers believed that Matthew 5:25–26, which references debt, prison, and a potential release from prison, could relate to an eventual release from postmortem punishment. Scholars have found sixth-century letters between monks that discuss how to argue against those who believed Matthew 5:25–26 could be used to suggest that hell would have an end (Eubank, 2018). There have been many other examples of Christian universalists. Dale C. Allison Jr. (2016) notes:
“Perhaps, then, it would be incautious to endorse, without reservation, Isaac and his fellow universalists—Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Hans Denck, Jane Leade, J. A. Bengel, Thomas Erskine, George MacDonald, Sergius Bulgakov, Jacques Ellul, John Hick, Marilyn McCord Adams. I nonetheless ardently hope that they’re right, and I don’t understand anyone who feels differently” (p. 118).
Conclusion
These two traditions didn’t influence each other, as their geographical origins and genesis wouldn’t allow it. There remain some interesting similarities, but also noticeable differences between these traditions. Both saṃsāra and Christian universalism reject the idea of an eternal place of punishment. Despite many Christians viewing universalism as a “heresy,” it is a brilliant example of the divergences in Christian thought. Both of these traditions have a focus on ethical teaching and not harming others. The relationship and differences between these two traditions should continue to be explored by students, researchers, and scholars.
References
Allison, D. C., Jr. (2016). Night comes: Death, imagination, and the last things. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Artman, D. (2020). Grace saves all: The necessity of Christian universalism. Wipf and Stock.
Babb, L. A. (1996). Absent Lord: Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture. University of California Press.
Cort, J. E. (2001). Jains in the world: Religious values and ideology in India. Oxford University Press.
Donaldson, B., & Bajželj, A. (2021). Insistent life: Principles for bioethics in the Jain tradition. University of California Press.
Eubank, N. (2018). Prison, penance or purgatory: The interpretation of Matthew 5.25–6 and parallels. New Testament Studies, 64(2), 162–177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0028688517000315
Granoff, P. (1998). The forest of thieves and the magic garden: An anthology of medieval Jain stories. Penguin Books.
Great Russian Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Bhagavan. https://bigenc.ru/wiki/%D0%91%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD
Gregg, S. (2013). All you want to know about hell: Three Christian views of God’s final solution to the problem of sin. Thomas Nelson.
Harrington, D. J. (1991). The Gospel of Matthew. Liturgical Press.
Howard, B. C. (2025). The unsettled heart: The Desert Fathers, Mothers, and the birth of Christian monasticism.
Jacobi, H. (Trans.). (1884). Jaina sutras, part I: Acaranga Sutra and Kalpa Sutra. Clarendon Press.
Kirk, J. R. D. (2020). Romans for normal people: A guide to the most misused, problematic and prooftexted letter in the Bible. The Bible for Normal People.
The Lockman Foundation. (2020). New American Standard Bible. The Lockman Foundation.
Orthodox Christian Meditations. (2023, February 27). Sayings from the Desert Mothers, part 1. https://orthodoxmeditations.blogspot.com/2023/02/sayings-from-desert-mothers-part-1.html
Stevenson, S. (1915). The heart of Jainism. Oxford University Press.
Ward, B. (Ed.). (2003). The sayings of the Desert Fathers: The alphabetical collection. Penguin Books.
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