I find it interesting how different groups of people—namely Jews, Christians, Mormons, and Muslims—can read the same text, the Bible, and come away with completely different meanings. This text is sacred in some way to all of these groups of believers, but the stories within it are often interpreted differently.
An important book on this subject is The Bible With and Without Jesus: How Jews and Christians Read the Same Stories Differently by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler (2020).
In popular culture, there is a joke: “Two Jews, three opinions,” and this saying relates well to biblical interpretation. Classical rabbinic literature was known to have seventy different “faces” of interpretation (Levine & Brettler, 2020, p. 26). Levine and Brettler note that “beginning in the late thirteenth century, Jewish biblical interpretation was often divided into four categories, summarized through the acronym PaRDeS: peshat, the simple or contextual meaning; remez, literally ‘hint,’ an allegorical meaning; derash, a homiletical meaning; and sod, a mystical meaning” (pp. 30–31). This approach may not have been exclusive to Jewish interpreters, since Christian interpreters of Scripture also used multiple layers of meaning beyond the literal sense (p. 35).
I recall going to seminary many years ago and taking a course on the Hebrew prophets. One of the most fascinating concepts was understanding what the prophets actually were. Many people growing up in church may think of prophets as crystal-ball gazers or fortune tellers. However, I learned that prophets in the ancient world were more like spokespeople for God in their own time period. Often, these prophets gave messages and oracles to their contemporary audiences. Levine and Brettler (2020) note, “We find that biblical prophets, like their ancient Near Eastern counterparts, did not predominantly predict events of the far future; rather, they mediated between the divine and human worlds and brought messages for the people of their own times” (p. 44).
The virgin conception of Jesus is also discussed in the New Testament. In the Gospel of Matthew we read: “Now all this took place so that what was spoken by the Lord through the prophet would be fulfilled” (Matthew 1:22, NASB). Matthew is reinforcing Jesus’s connection to Abraham, David, Moses, and Israel. Some readers see this as a miraculous fulfillment of prophecy, whereas others do not, since Isaiah 7:14 in its original context concerns political events in the last third of the eighth century BCE (Levine & Brettler, 2020, pp. 260–264).
While I can recall skeptics claiming that Matthew was being dishonest in applying this passage to the birth of Jesus, I feel that an approach like this is disingenuous, since Matthew was simply deploying Jewish biblical interpretive practices. Daniel Harrington (Sacra Pagina: The Gospel of Matthew, 2007) notes, “It is important also to stress that fulfillment does not remove significance or meaning from the OT; it is a matter of continuity than of discontinuity” (Harrington, p. 40).
Christians and Jews also find common ground in attributing many of the Psalms to King David. Scholars believe that Psalm 22 likely originated in the preexilic period, before the destruction of Jerusalem’s Temple in 586 BCE. This psalm is a lament and begins with the words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Psalm 22:1). It also includes imagery such as, “Many bulls have surrounded me; strong bulls of Bashan have encircled me” (Psalm 22:12).
A debated phrase appears in the Christian translation of Psalm 22:16: “For dogs have surrounded me; a band of evildoers has encompassed me; they pierced my hands and feet.” However, the Hebrew text is difficult, and the Septuagint translation differs. Levine and Brettler discuss the uncertainty of the verse’s original wording (2020, p. 367). They conclude:
“It is unlikely that we can ever securely determine what this Hebrew word originally read; therefore neither Jewish apologists who accuse Christians of misreading the text, nor Christian commentators like John Calvin, with his notice that ‘there are strong grounds for conjecturing that this passage has been fraudulently corrupted by the Jews,’ should have the last word” (p. 367).
This psalm is also placed on the lips of Jesus in Mark 15:33–34 and Matthew 27:45–46. Psalms were often grouped into genres or life situations (Sitz im Leben) (Levine & Brettler, 2020, p. 360). Psalm 22 is typically classified as an individual lament. Traditional Christian interpretation often reads this psalm as prophetic, even though the Tanakh does not explicitly label it as such (p. 368).
Jewish interpretations of Psalm 22 vary. In Justin Martyr’s Dialogue with Trypho, Trypho does not see Jesus in this psalm (Levine & Brettler, 2020, p. 372). Jewish readings often interpret it as referring to Esther, King David, or a future messianic figure other than Jesus (p. 372).
John 16:7 states, “But I tell you the truth: it is to your advantage that I am leaving; for if I do not leave, the Helper will not come to you; but if I go, I will send Him to you” (NASB). Christians have traditionally interpreted the “Helper” as the Holy Spirit. Pat Andrews (2024) argues that this interpretation is the most consistent reading of the passage.
Some Christian apologists respond to Islamic interpretations that see the “Helper” as a reference to the prophet Muhammad. Jamal Badawi (2026) argues that “Paraclete is the English equivalent that is used because of the lack of a better translation. The original Greek word for Paraclete is parakletos. This word has been translated as the Comforter and Advocate, and sometimes even as someone who admonishes. It is interesting to note that there is another Greek word, which is very close to parakletos, and it is periclytos, which means the illustrious, praised, or praiseworthy one.”
However, it is important to note that while some modern Islamic apologists argue that John 16 refers to Muhammad, this interpretation is not purely modern in origin. For example, Sean Anthony (2016) notes that from at least the mid-eighth century CE, Muslim interpreters began associating the Paraclete passages in John with Muhammad’s prophetic role.
A website titled Wrested Scriptures presents interpretations that challenge doctrines such as the Trinity, eternal hell, baptismal theology, and the Antichrist (“Wrested Scriptures”). Another Christian group, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, interprets Ezekiel 37:15–17 as a prophecy of the Bible and the Book of Mormon coming together. The passage reads:
“Take one stick and write on it, ‘For Judah…’ then take another stick and write on it, ‘For Joseph…’ then join them together so they become one” (Ezekiel 37:15–17).
Latter-day Saints interpret these “sticks” as representing the Bible and the Book of Mormon united as scripture. Critics, however, argue that the passage refers instead to the reunification of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah (Catholic Answers).
While these conversations are interesting, theology is not my primary academic focus anymore. I am more interested in the anthropology of religion. However, how different groups of believers interpret scripture remains central to that field. I also do not advocate for a single “correct” interpretation of scripture. James Kugel puts it well when he notes that ancient interpreters shared common assumptions about the Bible, particularly that it often contained hidden or layered meanings (Kugel, 2007, p. 14).
References
Andrews, P. (2024). Who is the Paraclete? Pfander Center. https://www.pfandercenter.org/blog/articles/who-is-the-paraclete
Anthony, S. (2016). Muḥammad, Menaḥem, and the Paraclete: New light on Ibn Isḥāq’s Arabic version of John 15:23–16:11.
Badawi, J. (2026). Muhammad in the Bible: Other references & conclusions. IslamOnline. https://islamonline.net/en/muhammad-in-the-bible-other-references-conclusions/
Catholic Answers. (n.d.). What are Mormons referring to when they talk about “the stick of Joseph”? https://www.catholic.com/qa/
Harrington, D. J. (2007). Sacra Pagina: The Gospel of Matthew. Liturgical Press.
Kugel, J. L. (2007). How to read the Bible: A guide to Scripture, then and now. Free Press.
Levine, A.-J., & Brettler, M. Z. (2020). The Bible with and without Jesus: How Jews and Christians read the same stories differently. HarperOne.
“Wrested Scriptures.” https://wrestedscriptures.com/
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